Social Contract Theory of John Locke Essay Example for Free

Social Contract Theory of John Locke Essay Abstract John Locke’s theory of the Social Contract is †merely a reasoned description of sound government but also a history of government from the earliest scatterings of humans, through their association in a social contract, to their rebellion when the terms of that contract are breached. † 1 This theory gives us the reason behind the idea that government only works if the people want to be governed. Any individual in this instance has the expectation that they and what they do are only limited by their own will. So under the social contract theory, the individual gives up some of its right in order to reap the benefits of what a social order can offer. Introduction Locke’s Theory says that before a society is formed men live â€Å"free† in a state of nature. In this society, although there are great things about living free in such a society, it carries the risk of having problems about all kinds of things and without a civil law authority; man was the arbiter of all. Locke’s theory brings to mind the old west. In little town with no law officer, the people or community carried out its own brand of justice. A man protected his home and family by any means necessary. The social contract theory gives them that right. Criminological Theory The theory has basis in today’s criminal justice system in that there are segments of society that believe that the law doesn’t apply to them nor does it protect them. For example, the perception is that the amount of crime in the inner city is rampant. It is widely reported on the news every night. There are always stories on these neighborhoods if and only if it is sensational and /or involves a Caucasian citizen. This argument bears out when newspapers print banner headlines about Caucasian children being missing or kidnapped and the nation is on the lookout for this child. Then, when an African American child goes missing, the first thing we hear about is that a pedophile was seen with him or his parents were drug dealers or someone in his family was convicted of a crime. The residents of the inner city have then learned that there is one set of laws for minorities or residents of the inner city and one set for those in the suburbs. In some instances they believe that there is no need for you to report some things to law enforcement because some how it will be the residents fault. The social contract theory is alive and well in the inner city. In Bill Lawson’s paper â€Å"Crime, Minorities, and the social contract â€Å" he posits that if the citizens of a particular neighborhood or group believe that government hasn’t done their job by adequately protecting them from crime and they take matters into their own hands according to Locke they are well within their rights. This comes from the idea that â€Å"One of the most important benefits of the state provides that of protection. This protection can be from either from outside invaders or unsavory characters within the state, that is, those individuals who want to infringe on property right by stealing, defrauding, or destroying property. †2 In the inner city, this seems more prevalent so if the citizens of that area believe that they are under served they tend to look to other means to protect themselves. Conclusion There are areas in the inner city that don’t expect the police to show up when something happens and when they do show up the people don’t expect them to do much. That expectation brings the social contract back into focus. For so long they believed that the government was protecting them, then after a while they came to believe that they had to protect themselves thereby enforcing the social contract with themselves and not the government.

The Life Of Working Mothers In Pakistan Social Work Essay

The Life Of Working Mothers In Pakistan Social Work Essay Purpose: This study explored the experiences of mid-career professional working mothers exercising integration between work, family and selves in the context of the city of Faisalabad, Pakistan. It has been examined that how the family systems included joint and nuclear, affected them and their careers. Findings: The study showed that the professional working mothers are responsible for performing their domestic and professional roles, besides self-care. The proper incorporation of both roles is plausible with the stipulation of flexibility from both, work and family system, both, joint and nuclear family system. All women had intense feeling of motherhood; their career was also of high importance for them as they find their values and purpose. They wanted to achieve the objectives of their lives and self-fulfillment. Now they were better able to balance their family, work and individual self in comparative to start of their careers. Research Limitations: The response rate from the audience was low, but, through in-depth, rich and contextual information, which was received during interviews, tried to overcome these flaws. The females from the targeted population became very anxious and some were refused to give audiotaped interviews. Originality/Value: This paper contributes in the work-life integration for professional working mothers. The study explored that what type of hindrance or support a working mother living acquired form the family system and from the workplace and how they integrate the both. Kaleidoscope career model was used for this purpose. Keywords: Professional working mothers, mid-career, joint family system, nuclear family system, work, Faisalabad Paper Type: Research Paper The proportions of women make up an increase in full-time workforce (Metz, 2005), especially in the professional and managerial fields around the world (Cabrera, 2007). Pakistan is in the phase of transition (Raza Murad, 2010), since July 2009 women employment is increased by 1.7% (Labour Force Survey, 2010). The increased proportion of women in labor force creates bigger challenges for women in the incorporation of roles and responsibilities and managing time accompanied with child bearing and child rearing years (Grady McCarthy, 2008). These challenges stimulated scientists to create a link between work, family and self (Valimaki, Lamsa Hiillos, 2009). As a result pressure on organizations to respond towards employees family responsibilities has been increasing (Goodstein, 1994). Additionally the challenge for the organization to find out the adequately integration between domestic and work life by work -family (WF) arrangements (Peeters, Wattez, Demerouti Regt, 2009), by provi ding equality policies, statutory entitlement, maternity leave, carers leave, parental leave, and non statutory arrangements like flextime, e-working, job sharing, term-time working (Glass Estes, 1997, Grady McCarthy, 2008). The increasing number of working mothers, over past years, has increased pressures for them as they confront meaning in work, family and personal life (Grady McCarthy, 2008). Work-life integration seems to be difficult for professional mothers due to increased pressures. They not only need to create meaning in their work, family, personal life by selves but they also need support at work place by the employer. The support by the employer at work place towards integration of work, family and self leads towards self-fulfillment and satisfaction which have positive outcome for them and ultimately for employer (Auster, 2001). The absence of the support by the employer may lead to the difficulties for the professional mothers. The work intensification and long hours, coupled with child rearing demands result in stress and labor turn over (Jones McKenna, 2002). The purpose of this study is to explore the issues, problems and experiences of mid-career professional mothers regarding work-life integration in Faisalabad, Pakistan. How the most prevailing family systems in Pakistan, joint and nuclear (Ahamad, 2002), affect them. The study examines what type of hindrance they face and what type of support they need at work place as well as from the family. Now in Pakistan, vast segment of the society based on women cannot be denied the womens status, autonomy and equality in playing a role in social, economic opportunities and nation building (Amir, 2004, conference paper). Concerns about the economy and as well due to the changes occurred in womans aspirations has increased the women as work force as never before (Ahamad, 2002). According to labor force survey 2010, womens employment rate increased by 1.7% as mentioned above. The focus is on mid-career professional working mothers because they are in the stage of career when a lot of attention i s required by their family and as well for building their professional career. Professional working mothers are defined as those mothers, who manage, develop and invest their professional career throughout the period of rearing their family (Grady McCarthy, 2008). Work-life integration Work and non-work are interdependent and the individuals have to play roles simultaneously or to switch frequently from one role to the other (Wilson et al., 2004). Work role is the professional duties assigned by the organization and non work includes family or domestic duties have to perform for family. Central idea of this research paper is work life integration. Work-life integration is defined that how professional workers incorporate the duties at work place accompanied with the domestic duties along self demands. This belief gained a lot of attraction in the past decade (Metz, 2005, Grady McCarthy, 2008, Valimaki, Lamsa Hiillos, 2009, Peeters, Wattez, Demerouti Regt, 2009, Goodstein, 1994, Glass Estes, 1997, Auster, 2001, Jones McKenna, 2002, Karatepe, 2009, Wilson et al., 2004 Burke, 2004). With rise of industrialization, the agrarian model is now replaced, the conventional role of women expected to take care of the children and men as bread winner is going to be change d (Valimaki, Lamsa Hiillos, 2009, Grady McCarthy). Employees need to confront the work and non-work roles corresponding. Dissolution, interference and conflict between the roles may lead to disorder, burn out, emotional exhaustion (Grady McCarthy, 2008 Peeters, Wattez, Demerouti Regt, 2009), negative health outcome dissatisfaction and emotional dissonance (Karatepe, 2009). The work-family conflict is considered bi-directional (Cohen, 2009, p. 814). Managing multiple tasks at a time may lead towards conflicts from work to family life and from family to work life (Kirrane Monks, 2004). Sense of equilibrium may create by positive spillover, enrichment and facilitation (Glass Estes, 1997, Valimaki, Lamsa Hiillos, 2009). On the other hand women entrance in workforce in last two decades at an precedent pace (Auster,2001), resulted dual-earner and in low gap between male and female (Ahamad, 2002). Females need support from family system and spouse to make an appropriate assimilatio n (Valimaki, Lamsa Hiillos, 2009). The family system and work-life integration for mid-career women It has been proposed that a professional womens career is difficult to be examined without examining her non-work life family system and spouse (Powell Mainiero, 1992). Family, a smallest unit of a society composed of two or more people who are interconnected by marriage, blood or adoption, live together from an economic unit, has basic features of sharing and togetherness (Ahamad, 2002). Two types of household systems, dominant in Pakistan, joint family system, in which women with her husband and children lives with in-laws, and the nuclear family system, in which a woman separately lives with her husband and children (Amir, 2004). A newly married working woman prefers to live in nuclear family system but in child bearing stage this system jeopardizes her life (Aamir, 2004). Due to the lack of day care centers and unreliable servants and maids may make it difficult for the working professional mothers to take care of their dependent children particular in mid-career. In such case joint family system becomes the heart favorite of working professional mothers (Aamir, 2004), which may facilitate and may take care of their children, in their working hours. Woman marries the whole family and she is answerable to other family members(Ahamad,2004), tough responsibilities are on her shoulders, specifically in joint system, leads towards heavy burden when woman is working as professional and as well as an economic hand of her partner. In such case woman may feel dissonance and may prefer nuclear system where number of dependents are less, she needs support from her spouse and work place to continue her professional career. Modern life is leading towards change in roles of women and men due to continuous changes in economic and demographic trends (Ahamad, 2002) The percentage of married couples increased in previous decades, in which both spouses worked full time, a spouse or a partner can provide basic support, include sharing home, parenting responsibilities, encouraging career development, interpersonal support needed by working women (Gordon Whelan-Berrry, 2004). After passing day long activity at workplace may make a working women exhausted and make it thorny for her to take care of children along household duties. In such case professional working women particular in mid-career, where family demands with child rearing are increasing accompanied with career growth. It may become difficult to incorporate both without support from family and work place. In some cases, family and spouse do not facilitate working women but sometimes do really support (Karatepe, 2009). Working professional mother may b e from Joint family system or nuclear family system, necessitate ample support. It may affect in work-life integration. By sharing common interests a flexible spouse enables working woman to manage their career and integrate work and family lives successfully (Valimaki, Lamsa Hiillos, 2009), especially in mid-career where career has already established and women are beyond the parenting of infants and toddlers, finding new challenges in work and personal interest (Gordon Whelan-Berrry, 2004 Grady McCarthy, 2008). Thus, literature indicates when women are in their mid-career, face challenges regarding work-life integration while experiencing new opportunities in advancement of their career, they need to be supported by work place and family system, either joint or nuclear family system. Professional working mothers strive to integrate across the domains and to minimize the gap. This research paper aims to explore the gap that how professional working mothers create balance concerning work, family and individual selves; and how family system affects this integration? The following section indicates research methods used in the current study to address these research questions. Method Qualitative in-depth interviews were carried out with 22 professional working mid-career mothers. The criteria determination for the participants was Professional mid-career working mothers, who joint parenting role along with career advancement Age between 33 to 48, most agreed aged for mid-career in Pakistan With children, at least one dependent child, less than 18 years The sample was chosen by considering convenience and snow-ball sampling. The professional working mothers to whom authors met were asked for further contacts. The sample size of 22 professional working mothers is adequate representation of population of working professional mothers particular in mid-career in Faisalabad, Pakistan. Interviews were based upon 90 to 120 minutes and were audio-taped. Authors transliterated interviews. Table1 presents the sample questions which were asked for exploration. Sector Subject matter Sample questions 1 Responsibilities/dependent care you and your family Tell about yourself, your responsibilities at work place and self demand? How does every day job look like? 2 Amalgamating work and family life Do you find it easy or difficult to manage work, family, school etc at morning? Did you ever feel frustration and think to stay at home full time? 3 The work place-flextime, support, enrichment Is your work place family-friendly for you? Have you availability of any flextime? 4 Career development and promotion-support or barrier Are you on the right path of your career, you ever thought? How did you manage during child rearing? 5 Self-fulfillment and satisfaction Did you approach your value or purpose of mid-career? Do you consider satisfied yourself? 6 Family system Who does take care of your dependents while your working hours? What type of family system may support more mid-career women? Opt out from child day care center, house maid or relatives for your child-care? 7 Other issues Has the study enabled you to think in a different way about your? 8 Demographic data Source: Work-life integration: Experiences of mid career professional working mothers (Grady McCarthy, 2008) The content analysis was the approach used to analyze the data (Bryman Bell, 2003). The qualitative responses were collected, grouped and the concept was examined through the organized analysis of the record. The figure below presents the content analysis framework that was derived. Framework led four subject matters along with four research questions. Further integration of work is illustrated by incorporating values and essence of balance. Final column indicates the responses of the participants towards questions Sphere Themes Description Construct of work-life integration Respondents reference to theme 1. Self-perception in relation to work and family roles Children are a working mothers number one priority. When there was a clear conflict between work and children, participants made choices and children became the priority. Sense of self (assess values, beliefs and purposes) 100% Work and career is very important Career is important for participant they seem stimulation, challenges and enrichment 80% 2. Work-related factors Flexibility is two-way When flexibility is experienced at work it supports commitment and increased productivity in the in the work place in addition to integrating work and family life 60% Changing attitudinal, and social context The changing attitudes and culture in the work place and the social and legislative changes have improved the situation for working mothers Work itself (paid and unpaid) 75% Responsible for ones own career Working mothers took responsibility for their own career at all stages and more particularly now as mature members of the workforce and at mid-career they assess that it is up to them to create their own future direction 93% 3. Merge work Family system Whether joint system help professional mothers for working? Joint family including husbands parents,sisters and brothers are helpful for working mother Sense of balance Choices about time in each sphere 72% Whether Nuclear system help professional mothers for working? Nuclear system excludes members of family except husband,wife and their children is more beneficial or provide support to working woman. 28% 4. Proper Integration Self suffers when work and family become dominant Integrating work and family was a key priority throughout the years with little time for self, but participants found significance in this integration. Integration and balance across work, family and self= work-life integration 80% Paradigm is shifting and needs are changing Merging work and family is getting easier, children are getting older, seaking more time for self- meaning of integration is changing 80% Findings Demographic information and career profile The participants in this study were 22 women in number aged from 33 to 48, fall in mid-career, who endured full time job accompanied with family rearing years. All infatuated nationality of Pakistan. All participants in this paper were interviewed, indicated their marital status as married, with at least one dependent child. Three of the participants had four children; nine of the females accompanied three kids and eight of the respondents possessed two children and two females had 1 child. Seven of the females were living in joint-family system, three of which lived with just mother-in law and father-in law, and other four were living with other relatives as well. Fifteen of the participants lived in nuclear system. One of the females had infants and the children of other women were school-aged or above but at least had one independent child. The women possessed work experience between 8 to 22 years. The targeted sectors were medical, education, makeup industry, telecommunication, nursing and research officers including both public, private and semi-government organizations along with self-employment. Four targeted interviewees were doctors had specialization in different fields, work experience fall from 9 to 20 years. Two of the participants were Ph.D. doctors, fell under the category of research offi cers; eight of the respondents were from education field were working as teachers, generally owned masters degree, as well had some completed short-courses relevant to the fields. Three of the contestants were selected from telecommuting, two from banks and one from beauty salon, preserved 10 to 18 years experience and possessed different relevant short courses. Nine of the women included, were form private organizations, five were from government or public organizations, five were from semi-government and three were the self-employed. One of the respondents, had the nationality of Pakistan but lived 10 years in Madinah, Saudi Arabia and worked as lecturer in the Madinah University, Saudi Arabia for ten years, and shifted to Faisalabad for last five years and running her own school. Self-perception in relation to work and family roles The findings point out that when the family roles as well as work roles spill over each other, the number one priority professional working mothers gave to their children. It is evident from the interviews that females were very disturbed and stressed at their work, regarding their children. Women miss their children at workplace. All women became very emotional when they talked about their children. They are not ready to do compromise over their children. The working mothers focused on giving a quality time to their children. The following statements are the evident of the way of thinking of mothers: Being a mother, my children are my number one priority. I will never let my children neglected due to my career. I have a wish to pursue my career along with performing the duties related to my children as a mother. As a mother, my kids were my main concern. I always tried to give them a quality time rather than a quantity time. Self employed respondents were flexible in their working conditions. They were not bound for any ones order. Such women indicated that the reason for their being self employed was their children. They said that it was difficult for them to give an appropriate time to their children. I am self-employed and running my own school. I rare feel to make an adjustment difficult between children and my career. In case of any accident or sickness of child it is easy for me to take a leave. All women had intense feeling of motherhood. But some women responded that their work as a stimulating factor for them. Females pointed out themselves much active due to their jobs and considered them as idle without job. They had more challenges in their lives so they worked hard and struggled more to accomplish. They identified them as more creative in contrast to non-professional women. In the start of my career, I found it hard to create a balance between work and family. But now I feel myself incomplete without my job. In off days I feel myself very lazy and idle. I even dont wash my face and take bath as I dont have to go at work. My work creates charm in my life. Work related factors: Two-way flexibility is very crucial issue in business organizations. If employers give flexibility to the employees working in an organization, the employees also put more commitment over there. Parental leaves, maternity leaves, flexible working hours, carers leave, job-sharing, may fall under the category of flexible related factors. Flexibility is very important. I am here; the reason is the cooperation from my colleagues at workplace. As yesterday, I had to attend mothers meeting of my younger child. My employer let me to go. As a result, today I am putting my maximum contribution. I am a doctor but instead of doing practice I am teaching at medical college and I got flexibility from the organization to pick my children from their school. My children are quite happy and I am also contented due to that flexibility. Some women pointed out that they had to suffer a lot because of inflexibility of the organization; sometimes it became so difficult for them to run their career during child bearing period. I am an employee of a private organization. During my career I thought many times to leave the job due to inflexibility from my organization specifically during my child bearing stage, I ever got unpaid maternity leaves for only one month. At that stage I became so frustrated due to my child care and had wished to shoot the employer. From previous decade the working trend of the women is increasing and as a result, social, behavioral and attitudinal changes are also emerging. In Pakistan, it was considered strange for the women to go out of their homes for the sake of earning beside their husbands. Now-a-days male colleagues share the responsibilities and contribute to the work with their female colleagues instead of competing with them. I have been working from eighteen years. At start of my career, my neighbors, relatives, and my male colleagues watched me in an unsophisticated way, but now at the stage of my mid-career my peer group specifically included men are very cooperative towards me. Without participation of women, its not easy to bear financial expenses only by male. Now society is more civilized and it is accepting this reality. Women only considered them responsible for their career. They often had to ignore many opportunities just due to their family and child related problems. Women were not willing to leave the city due to their family and spouse. I received much flexibility from my previous organization at Lahore. I was at the promotional stage in that unit of organization. But in case of my husbands promotion in Faisalabad I had to compromise and to leave that unit of organization and made it possible my transfer in other unit of that specific organization in Faisalabad. Now I have to deviate from my smooth career path. I have left many opportunities offered by organization. I dont want to become as part of top management because I dont want to bear burden of work more it may cause to disturb my family. Merging work and family system: As research evidence showed that professional working mothers have much feelings of motherhood and as well they had identified the need to come in professional fields. Women have to leave the job due to negative spillover of work and family roles; they have to leave their jobs (Glass Estes, 1997). There is high importance for them to merge work within their family systems. As indicated before that two most prevalent family systems are joint and nuclear. Professional working females, as part of joint system, pointed that this type of family system showed cooperation with them in their career path. I have been working from fourteen years. I have never felt any type of problem regarding my child care. I leave my children at home and their grandmother takes care of them in a best manner. My children are more confident and bold as compared to my relatives whose mothers are not working. Whenever I go home after completion of job, the happy faces of my children make me fresh. All credit goes to my mother-in-law. I love her. I dont have any problem regarding my children care. I never felt any need of child care center here because our joint family system is the best alternative of such day care centers. I may never feel confidence over the servants and maids as I have trust in my in-laws. Some women indicated that they had to suffer due to joint family system because of the burden of extra responsibilities and domestic duties. Joint family system hinders smooth career path of professional working women. Due to a large amount of domestic responsibilities I lost many opportunities. Financial expenses also increases and I have to give a big portion of my salary to my in-laws. Respondents who lived in nuclear family system mentioned a lot of problems regarding their work and family integration. They mentioned problems regarding their child care and to perform a lot of domestic duties by selves. Working women needed a cooperative spouse. I have to ignore my children when I come to work. I forget work when I reach at home. I wish to have a joint family system at least my children may be in a position to get safety and security because I cant rely on maids. My husbands career is very important and he cannot take leave for children. It is also evident that the working mothers, who lived in a nuclear system, didnt compromise on their careers. They didnt have any responsibilities and bounding from other family members. They indicated much satisfaction because they didnt need to answer anybody. I am thankful to God that I live in nuclear family system, I am very happy in my paradise where there is no interference from typical mother, father, sister and brother in-laws. I am not answerable in front of anybody regarding my actions except my cooperative husband. Support from partner/ spouses were identified as a key element for professional working mothers. A researcher woman pointed that she was nothing without the support from her husband because a supportive husband shared the domestic roles as well. Today I am here due to my husbands support. During my child bearing period I did my Ph.D. related to my field. I did work at home and my husband made it possible to examine my work from my supervisor consecutively. My husband is very cooperative in building my career. Even he does cooking if I am not there. It was reported by all participants that they may only continue their career if support from their families were there. Joint family system was supportive for family emergency time and children care. Research indicated those women who fell under the category of nuclear family system, pointed that they were nothing without their husbands support. Because there was no one at home, work as helping hand in spite of their spouses. Integration of work, family and personal self: Increasing trend of working mothers from the last decade indicated that women were in their mid-career. There felt a need to manage work family and personal selves. But respondent showed that this stage of mid-career they fully focused towards family and work and had forgotten themselves, which is supported by following statement of a gynecologist; Work and family come at first. My profession does not let me to ignore it. I have to remain alert at all times. In such case I find no time for myself. Last day I came to workplace and my coworkers pointed that I was wearing shirt from the wrong side. The participant women showed that they are trying for their values in their lives because at this time of mid-career the financial issues were almost solved and compensation plans are not enough. Their children have also grown up and care for children become easier. The women at their mid-career seek purpose of their lives, their needs are changing. They mentioned that they had past a lot of time with their work and family now they feel need for self care. The following statement proves these views: In the start, my husbands salary was very low, unable to fulfill our financial expenses; I pursued myself towards my career as right hand of my husband. That was tough time when my children required time from my side. But now I have no problem regarding children care or any financial issue. Its now time to focus on me. In summarized form, it is proved from the findings of the whole study that working professional mothers interplay the roles of work and family along with individual selves. Family balance is achieved through the potential, appropriate plan, family system, and workplace flexibility and a network of support. Large proportion of respondents perceived that joint family system helped them for fulfilling career and a sense of achievement. In the start career the most portion of the time, they devoted for work and family. But now in mid-career, self-balance gained a lot of importance. Discussion and conclusion This study explored the experiences of mid-career professional working mothers constructing integration between work, family and selves in the context of Faisalabad, Pakistan. It is examined that how family systems included joint and nuclear, affect them and their career. How these professional working mothers made integration in spite of lot of challenges and what support they require from family system. The lives of professional working mothers are very crucial. They need to run their family and children as number one priority along with significant concern for their career. Mid-career professional working mothers experienced a long time period of time for their work. They created quality in their work, which motivated them for the self-fulfillment. According to Warner and Hausdorf (2009) work-family support negatively affects the individuals stress and leads to satisfaction in different aspects of life, family as well as the job while enhancing more commitment towards their workpl ace. Thats why working professional mothers leads towards the sense of achievement. Now organizations are struggling to better understand the factors, affect the fulfillment of this ever-growing demographic type of mid-career who is filled with intelligence and experience (Ellen R. Auster and Karen L. Ekstein, 2004). The existence of flexible working conditions and flexible working hours are reported as favorable for the working mothers. Schedule flexibility is a boundary-spanning resource that helps workers accomplish both their work and family responsibilities (Carlson, Grzywacz Kacmar, 2010, p. 331). Organizational policies are required to include flex options, for professional working mothers. Women and men particularly who are married, as c

Secretors And Non Secretors In Human Population Antigens Biology Essay

Secretors And Non Secretors In Human Population Antigens Biology Essay Human population can be categorized into secretors and non-secretors based on A, B and H antigen on basis of presence or absence of these blood group antigens in the body fluids and secretions, such as saliva, sweat, tears, semen, serum, mucus present in the digestive tract or respiratory cavities etc. Secretors are individuals that secrete blood group antigens in their body fluids while non-secretors are the individuals that do not secrete them in their body fluids and secretions. It is a known fact that ABO blood type is controlled by blood type coding genes present on the chromosome 9q34 but the secretor status of an individual is decided by interaction of a separate gene (called secreting gene) with these blood type genes. The presence of the secreting gene in a persons genome makes him a secretor and absence makes him a non secretor. The gene is designated as (Se) for Secretors and (se) for Non-secretors and it is entirely independent of the blood type A, B, AB or O. The individuals secreting antigens in the body fluid are designated as ABH secretors in blood banks. Individuals having O blood group secrete antigen H, A blood group secrete A and H antigens, B blood group secrete B and H antigens in the fluids. A secretor gene helps a person to gain a degree of protection against different environmental conditions especially the micro flora of a particular environment and also the lectins present in them. It helps them in promoting the growth of friendly, stable blood type intestinal bacterial ecosystem which depends on the blood type antigens present in the mucus of an individual. Secretor status does modify carbohydrates in the fluids present in the body and their secretions and it also affects and influences the attachment and persistence of the micro flora present in the body. Secretors are at a higher advantage than non-secretors. Non-secretors have a potential health disadvantage. They possess many metabolic traits such as carbohydrate intolerance, immune susceptibilities. Different tests are available for determining an individuals secretor status. Most common test uses saliva or other body fluids of an individual for testing the secretor status. These tests are based on the principl e of Agglutination Inhibition where the antigens are neutralized by the corresponding antibodies so that these antibodies will not be further be available to neutralize or agglutinate the same antigens residing on the red blood cells. ELISA could also be used for determining the presence of the secreted Lewis antigens in the saliva or other body fluids. Statistics 1 Place Population Tested % Secretor Frequency % Non-Secretor Frequency New York Negroes 178 61.2 0.38 38.8 0.62 Copenhagen Danes 263 74.0 0.49 26.0 0.51 Japan Japanese 424 75.7 0.51 24.3 0.49 Berlin Germans 363 78.0 0.53 22.0 0.47 Poland Poles 88 79.4 0.54 21.6 0.46 New York Whites 74 82.4 0.58 17.6 0.42 Helsinki Finns 196 86.3 0.63 13.7 0.37 New Mexico American Indians 69 98.5 0.88 1.5 0.12 Utah American Indians 79 100.0 1.00 0 0 The alleles Se and se differ in the frequency and have an anthropological value. They occur in different frequency in different populations. They have a high frequency in the American Indiana and a low frequency in the southern Indians. In US 20% of the population is secretors whereas 80% of the population consist of non-secretors. The fusion allele of the FUT2 (secretor type alpha(1,2)-fucosyltransferase) gene at a high frequency and a new se385 allele in a Korean population SECRETOR AND NON-SECRETOR A person secreting blood group antigens into the body fluids and other secretions like saliva, semen, tear, mucous in the digestive tract and respiratory cavities are named as secretors. In similar terms they put their blood type antigens in the body fluids. They secrete antigens according to their blood type, A secrete antigen A and H, B secret antigen B and H, O secrete antigen O and AB secrete A, B and H antigen. Secretors expresses Lewis b (Leb) antigens on the RBC where as non-secretor expresses Lewis a (Le a) on their RBC.These antigens in the body fluids give additional protection to the individual against the various microorganisms and the lectins present all around us. 15- 20% of the population consists of non-secretor. These individual fail to secrete the blood group antigens in their body fluids hence they become susceptible to bacterial and superficial yeast infections. A large no of them sometimes also suffer from the autoimmune disorder. This could also be correlated with the secretor and non-secretor phenotype. The body secretions of secretors and non-secretors differ quantitatively and also qualitatively. The type and quantity of the antigens present in it differ among different individuals. In some cases the non-secretors may contain the A and B antigens in the saliva but the quantity is less and even quality is very low hence they have similar functional problem. There are certain properties which are specific for secretors and differ in non-secretors. Some are listed below: Intestinal alkaline phosphatase activity ABH secretor correlates the activity of alkaline phosphatase and serum alkaline phosphatase present in the intestine. Non-secretors have low activity of alkaline phosphatase and serum alkaline phosphatase which is responsible for the breakdown of fat and assimilate calcium.2-5 Low molecular weight alkaline is present in both secretors and non-secretors and high molecular weight alkaline phosphatase is present only is secretors.6 Bacterial flora The ABH blood types influence the population of bacteria residing in the local vicinity of the gut mucin glycoproteins. Bacteria produce enzymes that have the capability to degrade the end sugar of A, B, and H blood antigens and which are consumed as food by them. The B antigen degrading bacteria produce enzyme to remove the end alpha-D-galactose and A antigen degrading bacteria produce enzyme to detach N-acetylgalactosamine which are used as a source of food by them.7,8 Blood clotting The secretor and the ABO genetics influence each other and effect upto 60% of the vWf concentration variation in plasma. Raised levels of factor VIII and vWf may cause thrombotic and heart disease in future. Secretors have the slowest clotting time, thinnest blood, least tendency of platelet aggregation, low amount of factor VIII and von Willebrand factor (vWf).9,10 The non-secretors have highest clotting time, thick blood, high amount of factor VIII and von Willebrand factor (vWf) and low bleeding time. The blood viscosity is also influenced by the secretor status of that individual. Phenotype Lewis Characteristics of Clotting Le (a- b-)  Ã‚  maximum action of factor VIII and vWf Very Low bleeding times (seen in A, B and AB) Le (a+ b-) intermediary action Low bleeding times (seen in O) Le (a- b+) minimum action of factor VIII and vWf Very Long bleeding times (seen in O) Blood Type Lewis and Factors effect Blood Clotting Immunoglobulin Variations ABH non-secretors express low concentration of IgG immunoglobulin.11,12 The secretion of varying concentration of diverse constituents of the blood group is controlled by the secretor gene and it also affects the phagocytic activity of the leucocytes which provides an added advantage to the non-secretors. The leucocytes of the non-secretors possess a greater ingestion power when compared to the secretors. The O and B blood group non-secretors have the highest phagocytic activity.13 The presence of different concentration of anti-I in the an individuals serum is affected by the ABO group, secretor status and sex of the individual. The secretors females have a high level of anti-I in the serum as compared to the males.14 The non-secretor have low levels of IgA and IgG antibodies and hence have frequent problems with the heart valve. Genetics and Biochemical pathways The secretion of the blood group antigens in the body fluids and other secretions are genetically influenced by certain allelomorphic genes. Secretor gene contains two alleles (Se) and (se). The dominant gene (Se) is present in the homozygous or heterozygous condition in the secretors which lead to the secretion of antigens into the body fluids. (se) is recessive allele and is present in non-secretors in the homozygous condition. SeSe and seSe produces a dominant secretor phenotype and sese produces a recessive non-secretor phenotype. Basically three genes are responsible for the formation of the A and B antigens. They are namely ABO, Hh, and Sese genes encoding glycosyltransferases which produces the A and B antigens. H antigen present in the individual with O blood group is the precursor for the formation of A and B antigens. H antigen acts as a backbone for A and B antigens. The O gene is considered as amorphic. The allele Hh and Sese reside on each locus and are closely linked together. It is also suggested that one of the allele has arisen by the gene duplication of the other. The second allele on the same locus is really rare. The product related to this allele hasnt been discovered yet and hence it is considered as amorph. The oligosaccharide responsible for the formation of the A and B antigen can exist in a simple linear fashion or a complex branched fashion. Infants A, B and H antigens contain high amount of linear chained oligosaccharide whereas oligosaccharides present in an adult contain high amount of branched chained oligosaccharides.15 The A and B antigen is synthesized from a common intermediate known as substance H. The conversion is carried out by the addition of a sugar molecule to the non reducing end of the H oligosaccharide chains. This addition affects the reactivity of H antigen.16,17 The ABH substances are secreted in the Urinary respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract by mucous glands residing there. The secretor gene regulates the synthesis of blood group antigens in the glands of small intestinal mucosa. The secretors and non-secretors produce A and B substances which are basically glycoproteins in pylorus and Brunners glands and produce A and B substances those are soluble in alcohol and glycosphingolipids in nature.18,19,20 The secretors also produce ABH substances in the prostate and lactating mammary glands.20 The secretion of breast is rich in H substance but poor in substance A and virtually absent in substance B. The synthesis of these constituents in the pancreas and secretory cells of sweat gland is not controlled by the secretor gene.21 The blood groups substances were also found in the calyxes and collecting tubules of the secretors (Se) but it could not be concluded that whether they are produced by the kidneys or are generally excreted. These secretions were noticed in the eight to nine weeks old salivary glands and stomach and later it appears throughout the gastrointestinal tract.19,22 Glycosphingolipids carrying the A or B oligosaccharides are present on the membranes of RBCs, epithelial and endothelial cells and are also present in the plasma in the soluble form. The glycoproteins carrying the similar A and B oligosaccharides are responsible for their activity in the body fluids. In the body fluids they are present in the secreted form. The A and B oligosaccharides which do not contain the carrier proteins are present in the milk and urine. The chromosome 19 contains FUT 1 and FUT 2 genes which code for fucosyltransferase.23 FUT genes numbered from 1-7 and form clusters which are responsible for the production of enzymes called as fucosyltranferases. The cluster is located on chromosome 19q13.3. Fucosyltranferase helps in the formation of fucose moiety which is added to the H antigen and further gylcosylate the A or/and B antigens.24,25 H antigen is a basic blood group antigen present in each and every human being but the content varies in different individuals of the same ABO group. A general pattern indicates that its strength varies as O>A2>A2B>B>A1>A1B. Water soluble H antigen has been demonstrated in the saliva and the body fluids of the individuals. H antigens are fucose containing glycan units which are present on the glycolipids or glycoproteins residing on the erythrocytes membrane or in the secretions. The fucosylatedglycans are the substrate for the enzyme glycosytransferases that are responsible for the formation of the Lewis and A, B blood group antigen epitopes. Secretors contain both the alleles whereas non secretor contains the null allele for FUT2 gene. The FUT 2 gene codes for fucosyltranferaseenzyme in the exocrine tissues which lead to formation of antigens in the body secretions and body fluids. The A and B genes produce glycosyltranferase that add sugar to oligosaccharide chains that is converted to H antigen. The H antigen are constructed on the oligosaccharide chain. The oligosaccharide chains could be of two type: Type 1 and type 2.15 The glycosphingolipids present in the plasma and on the membranes of glandular and parenchymal cells and glycoproteins present on the cell surfaces or body fluids carry either the type 1 or type 2 chains. The glycolipids antigens present on the RBC contain type 2 chains. A gene encodes N-acetyl-galactosaminyl-transferase and B gene-encodes galactosaminyl-transferase and add   GalNAc   and  Gal   in alpha (1-3) linkages which is acts on the H gene transferase. The H gene produces fucosyltransferase that add fucose to the terminal Galactose molecule of type 2 chain. It forms an alpha (1-2) linkage. A and B antigens are constructed when the A and B transferases attach respective sugars to the type 1 or type 2 chain substituted with Fucose.26 The secretor gene FUT2 located at 19q13.3 and codes for the activity of the glycosyltransferasesin concert with the FUT1 gene coding for H antigen, needed to assemble both the ABO and Lewis blood group and are active in mucous gland and goblet cells which interact with each other and lead to secretions of antigens in the fluids. The expression patterns of both the genes are different. The FUT1 (H) gene is dominantly expressed in the erythroid tissues which lead to the formation of the H enzyme whereas the FUT2 (secretor) gene is expressed in the secretory tissues and lead to the formation of secretor enzyme. The product of the H enzyme or H gene resides on the erythrocytes and product of secretor gene resides on mucins in secretions. If an individual lack these alleles, he/she will not be able to express the above active enzymes therefore they would be deficient of the substrates which are required by the A or B glycosyltransferases. Therefore they would not express the A and B epitopes. Correlation between Lewis Phenotype and ABH Secretor status The Lewis typing also helps in finding the ABH secretor status. The production of Lewis antigens is genetically controlled. Individuals possessing the Lewis (Le) gene would produce the Lewis antigens which are carried in the plasma by different substances and are absorbed onto the Red blood Cells present in ones blood. The ABO determinants and H/h blood groups factors seem to show structurally corelation to Lewis blood determinants. FUT1 provide the glycans for glycosyltransferases which convert Lewis antigen to ABH antigens. FUT2 allele is expressed in the secretor and is responsible for the expression of type1 H determinant. The secretors convert their Lewis a antigen to Lewis b therefore they are (a-b+) and the non-secretor are (a+b-) as they lack the FUT2 responsible for glycosyltransferase which could convert Lewis a antigen to Lewis b antigen. Lewis (Le) gene and Secreting (Se) gene interact with each other. Initially Lewisais formed and if Se gene is absent in an individual the Lewisa substance is absorbed on the RBC and the individual is typed as Lewisa but in secretors the Se gene controls the activation of the H gene which causes addition of an additional sugar to Lewisa which convert it to Lewisb. Secretors contain both Lewisa and Lewisb in their plasma but absorb Lewisb preferentially on the red blood cells and the individual is typed as Lewisb. Hence we could interpret that presence of Lewis gene would type an individual as Lewisa positive or Lewisb negative or vice versa. An individual could not be positive for both. A person containing both Lewis gene and Secreting gene are typed as Lewisa negative and Lewisb positive whereas a person having the Lewis gene but not the secretor gene is typed as Lewisa positive and Lewisb negative. Individual who does not have Lewis gene regardless of secretor gene is typed as Lewisa negative and Lewisb negative.27,28 Note: Lewis Double Negative (LDN) is a sub type of non secretors but Lewis typing cannot be used for them to determine the ABH secretor status. Detection methods29-31 The presence and absence of the antigens in the body fluids could be detected by Agglutination Inhibition and Lewis typing. Agglutination Inhibition test could be divided into two parts:- Part I Antibody Neutralization: To determining ones secretor status, the saliva of the individual is mixed by the antiserum (Anti-A, Anti-B or Anti-H) available commercially. In secretors the soluble substances i.e. blood group antigens will react with the antibodies present in the antiserum and will get neutralized. Part II Agglutination Inhibition: The bed blood cells obtained commercially are added to the test mixture. In secretors agglutination of the RBC do not take place as no free antibodies are available to agglutinate them. All the antibodies have reacted with the soluble antigens present in the saliva whereas in non-secretors agglutination would occur upon addition of the RBC as no blood group antigens are present in the saliva so antibodies present in the antiserum are not neutralized and hence would be free to react with the test RBC cells which are added to the test mixture. Hence agglutination is a negative test for secretor status and positive test for the non-secretor status. Note: Anti-H lectin containing phytohaemagglutinin virtually specific for human RBC. Thirteen Cucurbitaceaespecies have been investigated for the anti-H activity present in their seed lectins. Lectins has been extracted and purified from Ulexeuropaeus seeds. It could be used to demonstrate the H secretor status of blood group O individual and also for subgrouping the blood group A individuals. Lewis typing: Individuals carrying the Lewis gene produce Lewis antigens that are carried by the plasma and are also adsorbed on the red blood cells. Lewis antigens do not reside only on the red blood cells. Initially the gene gives rise to Lewisa. If Se gene is present it activates H gene which interact with the Lewisa and add a sugar to Lewisa and hence get converted it to Lewisb. Both Lewisa and Lewisb in present in the plasma of the secretors. If the Se gene is not present then the Lewisa substance is adsorbed on the red cells and individuals are typed as Lewisa. The secretor status of an individual could be determined with help of Lewisa and Lewisb antibodies mixed with an individuals saliva and observing the agglutination macroscopically. Disease Susceptibility among Secretors and Non-secretors Digestive system Non-secretors are more prone to the diseases caused by the oral bacteria in the digestive system of an individual. It includes ulcers, celiac diseases gastric carcinoma pernicious anemia etc. It could lead to dysplasia or increase in the number of cavities present in the digestive tract. Non-secretors are less resistant to the infection caused by Helicobacter pylori which could lead to the formation of peptic and duodenal ulcers.32,33 It could easily colonize and cause inflammation in the non-secretors.34 The non-secretors lack the blood group antigens in the mucus secretions therefore H.pylori attach to the walls of the digestive tract and cause infection. The secretors have a tendency to secrete free ABH antigens in their intestinal secretions which effect the bacterial and lectins adherence to the microvilli present in the gut. The secretors produce these antigens and prevent H.pylori attachment. These antigens act as a decoy in the secretors which prevent them from attaching with the host tissues. The non-secretors also show a lower IgG immune response to the H.pylori. They have extreme rate of bleeding and stomach ulcers but correlation between these complications and the secretor status have not been documented yet. The non-secretors are not able to turn off the digestive enzymes and hence they produce large amount of enzyme pepsin and hence are more prone to duodenal ulcers. 50% of the duodenal ulcers are present in non-secretors. 30-40% of group O individuals are affected by the duodenal ulcers and 15- 20 % are affected by the gastric ulcers. They show a high risk factor along with the gene coding for hyperpepsinogenemia I which impact in the risk of duodenal ulcers.35,36 Group A individuals have a higher tendency of having gastric cancer and pernicious anemia. Statistics shows that 20% of the group A individuals are affected by gastric cancers and 25% are affected by the pernicious anemia. Oral pathology The non-secretors are more prone to oral diseases like mouth and esophagus cancer, epithelial dysplasia etc. They have more cavities than secretors.37 Diabetes The ABH non-secretors and Lewis negative (Le a-b-) individuals have a high risk of developing insulin dependent diabetes or complications arising from diabetes.38,39 Secretors with juvenile diabetes have a low chance of developing retinopathy.40 The ABH non secretors which are affected by insulin dependent diabetes mellitus, they show mean levels of C3c and C4 is lower as compared to ABH secretors. Metabolic Syndrome X The Lewis negative men are predisposing to syndrome X and prothrombic metabolism. They have high levels of BMI, SBP, triglycerides and low levels of insulin in serum and plasma glucose while fasting. This relationship is not true for women and is only applicable for the men.41-43 Respiratory System   Secretors have an added protection against the harmful environmental assaults directed towards our lungs and as usual non-secretors have a health disadvantage. They are over represented among the people suffering from influenza viruses A and B, rhinoviruses, respiratory synsytial virus and echinoviruses.44 Secretors who are miners or smokers do receive a protection against the disastrous effects of the cigarette smoking. Asthma is very common among the individuals working in the coal mines. Upon research it was concluded that asthma among them is also related to the non-secretor phenotype present in them. The non-secretor has a tendency to snore and are more prone to COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease).45 Heart disease The ABH non-secretor phenotype have a high risk of developing myocardial infarction and Lewis negative individuals have a high risk of developing chronic heart disease (CHD) and also ischemic heart disease (IHD).46 They contain high levels of triglycerides.47 Alcoholism has a positive interaction with the Lewis negative individuals. Alcohol consumption is protective in these individuals.48,49 Autoimmune Disease   Autoimmune disorders such as Sjogrens syndrome, spondylitis, sclerosis, arthropathy, arthritis, and Graves disease are more prone in non-secretors.50-52 The ABH non-secretors affected with graves disease produces high levels of antitubulin antibodies as compared to secretors and are unable to produce the water soluble glycoproteins in the saliva.53 Fetal Loss and Infertility ABO antigens are also found on the sperm of the secretors.54 These are obtained from the seminal secretions present in them. ABO incompatibility could exist between the wife and husband if could affect the fertility of an individual.55,56 This issue has not been properly studied and is therefore under research. Rheumatic Fever The secretors and group O individuals are resistant to Rheumatic fever and more number of cases have been recorded in the non-secretors.57,58 Secretor status could also determine whether the rheumatic fever would be followed by streptococcal pharyngitis or not.59-61 Neisseria species The non-secretors who do not produce water soluble antigens in the saliva are at the risk of getting infected by Neisseria meningcococcal disease.62 The immune capabilities of the secretor provide a relative protection in the secretors. The ABH non-secretors produce low level of anti-meningococcal salivary IgM antibodies which provide protection to the secretors against the microorganism.63 Candida species Non-secretors are barriers of candida species and therefore are frequently affected by the candida infections. The glycocompounds secreted by secretors in the body fluids inhibit adhesins present on the yeast which are responsible for their adhesion with the body tissues.64-66 This leads to the development of the chronic hyperplastic Candidiasis. Statistics shows that 68% on the non-secretors are affected by chronic hyperplastic candidiasis.67 Non-secretor women are affected by recurrent idiopathic vulvovaginal Candidiasis. An individual with a combination of non-secretors and absence of Lewis gene are at relative risk of developing recurrent idiopathic vulvovaginal Candidiasis.68 Tumor Markers The individuals with homozygous active Le alleles (Le/Le) and inactive (se/se) alleles shows a highest mean value of CA19-9 tumor marker.69 The Lewis negative individuals irrespective of Se genotype have negative values for CA19-9. The Lewis negative individuals have higher mean value for DU PAN-2 as compared to Le-positive individuals.70 We can conclude that CA 19-9 marker is not an appropriate tumor marker for Le-negative individuals but DU-PAN-9 is an appropriate tumor marker.71 UTI Non-secretors show a higher risk of getting recurrent urinary tract infection (UTI) and renal scars as compared to secretors. This susceptibility is higher among negative Lewis subset. Statistics of a study done on women affected with recurrent urinary tract infection stated that 29% of the non-secretor women were affected by UTI and 26% of Lewis (a-b-) women were affected by the UTI.72-74 The non-secretor phenotype and blood group B and AB phenotype work together to increase the risk of UTI among women. Women and children suffering from renal scarring with and without the antibiotic treatment for UTI are prone to UTI and pyelonephritis.75-77 55-60% of non-secretors develop renal scars and 16% on secretors develop renal scars.78 C-reactive protein levels, erythrocyte sedimentation rate and body temperature are higher in the non-secretors that in secretors with recurrent UTI.79 Conclusion It concludes that there exist a statistical association between the individuals blood-group secretor phenotype and the diseases they are susceptible to. So knowing your secretor status is advantageous as we can use the nutritional supplements more intelligently and effectively. It also makes us aware of the diseases, illness and metabolic dysfunction we are prone to, difference in the levels of intestinal alkaline phosphatase activity, propensities towards blood clotting, tumor markers and different ingredients of breast milk so that we can manage them before hand and would be prepared for them in the near future.

Facing Our Fears in Science Fiction Essay -- Science Fiction Films Bo

Facing Our Fears in Science Fiction The dead are walking. They lumber and limp, feet scraping against the asphalt. Suddenly, they lunge and tear down into soft, warm, vulnerable flesh with startling speed. Not far behind, oozing inside-out hellhounds growl around razor fangs, stalking with murderous intent. All because of an innocent little airborne chemical weapon†¦This can’t be happening, this would never happen, right? It may sound far fetched, and it is. These horrifying creatures grace the screen of current blockbuster hit, Resident Evil 2: Apocalypse. So you’re safe. For now. But why are these images on screen so terrifying to us? Why do we cringe and gasp and sigh with giddy relief when it’s all over? Because we’ve just been given a brush with death. One of our greatest common fears came to life, and we stared it straight in the face and lived to tell about it. And that’s why we’ll keep coming back. After all, that is how science fiction films ha ve maintained their popularity and appeal for over fifty years now – they take whatever common fears our current society possesses and reflect them back at us. Fifty years ago, computers were as yet unheard of, and the world was still a very large place. Society was not so much concerned with trouble within itself, but with assault from outside forces. According to film critic John Brosnan in Future Tense, the end of World War II sparked the beginning of the â€Å"Golden Age† of science fiction (73). The war was over, but the Communist threat was still out there, and with the unleashing of the atomic bomb fear of a full scale nuclear war bordered on paranoia. Families built bomb shelters in their backyards and schools held air raid drills for their c... ...he dead walking. We love to ask ourselves, â€Å"This can’t be happening! This would never happen! Right?† Wrong. Works Cited Brosnan, John . Future Tense. New York: St. Martin's P, Inc., 1978. Dirks, Tim. Science Fiction Films. May 1996. 02 Oct. 2004 . Glass, Fred. "Sign of the Times." Film Quarterly 38 (1984): 16-27. Menville, Douglas . A Historical and Critical survey of the Science Fiction Film. Diss. U of Southern California, 1959. New York: Arno P Inc., 1974. Senior, W.A.. "Blade Runner and Cyberpunk Visions of Humanity." Film Criticism 21 (1996): 1-12. Telotte, J.P.. "The Problem of the Real and THX 1138." Film Criticism 34 (2000): 45-57. Warwick, Kevin. "The Matrix - Our Future?" The Philosophy of the Matrix. 20 Nov.2002: 14 Oct. 2004

Teenage Alcoholism Essay -- essays research papers fc

ALCOHOLISM This research paper is on alcoholism and its affect on teenagers and adults. This piece will fully outline alcohol from its origin, and different types of alcohol, all the way to the treatment of alcohol addiction. Reading this paper will hopefully shed some light on the fact that people with an alcohol addiction do not only hurt and affect themselves, but also make the people around them susceptible to the same fate. I.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ethyl alcohol (also known as drinking alcohol), is one of the oldest drugs in the world. Five thousand years ago, the people of Mesopotamia drank beer and recorded it on clay tablets. The ancient Egyptians brewed and drank beer also.1 And today, alcohol is probably used in every country in the world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There are several types of alcohol, but ethyl is the most common and is the only one that can be consumed. Other alcohols include: Methyl, used in antifreeze and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   cleaning solutions; Isopropyl, which is used in rubbing alcohol; Ethylene, also used in antifreeze; and Glycerol, which is used in hand lotions and plastic explosives.2   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Alcohol is made through a process called fermentation. Fermentation turns fruit juice into wine and grain mixed with liquid into beer.3 This process is completed by a group of microscopic organisms, mostly made up of yeasts. When the yeast bacteria act on the sugar (glucose) in the fruit juice, they produce alcohol and carbon dioxide.4 Alcohol addiction or alcoholism is a diseased condition resulting from the excessive or persistent use of alcoholic beverages.5 These beverages include: whiskey, wine, wine coolers, beer, liquor, hard cider and many others. Alcoholism is thought to arise from a combination of a wide range of physiological, psychological, social and genetic factors.6 Consumption of alcohol has greatly increased in the United States, many European countries and countries that were in the former Soviet Union. This is paralleled by growing evidence o... ...she has a drinking problem and second, that he/she knows that people with an alcohol addiction do not only hurt and affect themselves, but they also make the people around them susceptible to the same fate. Then perhaps we can slowly but surely put an end to alcoholism.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Bibliography World Book Encyclopedia 1995 Edition   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Keyword(s): Alcoholism, Al-Anon, Alcoholics Anonymous ''Alcohol'' Funk & Wagnalls Encyclopedia, Vol. 1,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Harper & Row, 1993 Resnick, Charlotte A. and Gloria R. Resnick, To Your Good Health-2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  nd Edition,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  p. 374-388, New York, Amsco, 1989 http://www.tabc.state.tx.us/leginfo/sb35.htm   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Texas Alcoholic Beverage Comission, 2001 http://www.edu.pe.ca/southernkings/alcoholreason.htm   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  no author given, no date given http://www.utextension.utk.edu/spfiles/sp491b   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What to Know About Teen Alcohol and other Drug Use (downloadable   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  pamphlet) 2001

Contiki Tours : Marketing Strategy Analysis Essay

Contiki Tours is an organisation that offers packaged holidays to a variety of local and international destinations. Their targeted market is limited by age. Clients must be between 18 and 35 years old. The analysis will focus on Contiki *s Australian market for international holidays. Contiki have adopted a concentrated marketing strategy in identifying market segments. This means that they have elected to focus their marketing efforts on gaining a high share of one particular segment of the market (i.e. 18-35 year olds). The advantage of such a strategy is that it allows specialisation which may produce economies in production, distribution and promotion. However, it does entail some risks in that market needs can change or competitors may enter the segment. The risks and benefits of this strategy will be examined more closely in the analysis of the marketing mix. Product In order to assess the effectiveness of Contiki’s marketing strategy it is important to understand the n ature of the product offered by the organisation in terms of the benefits that it provides. Broadly, it is a service product (eg. flight, bus trip, food preparation) although elements of the product are physical (eg. food, t-shirts). It is a specialty product given that it meets a specialised need and consumers are willing to spend quite some time searching for and evaluating. It is also purchased infrequently. It would also be considered a high involvement product due to the relatively high risks of purchase. The notion of purchase risk will be explored in more detail in an analysis of consumer behaviour. Price The nature of the product, characteristics of the target market, and consumer behaviour each have important implications for pricing. It should be noted that the price paid for the product by the consumer involves more than the nominal price (i.e. the ‘price tag’). As well as the money paid for the product, consumers endure time costs and must expend behavioural and cognitive effort. Cognitive effort may involve the customer dealing with some of the risks of purchase (Ross, 1984). There are a number of implications of this analysis for Contiki. Firstly, the organisation can manage the price t hat consumers pay by minimising the time, behavioural and cognitive effort that is used purchasing the product. By decreasing the costs to the consumer, Contiki is able to increase the perceived value of their product to consumers. Over-the-phone or internet information and booking services would decrease the time taken in actually purchasing the product, and therefore the cost of the product to the consumer. Also, convenient agent locations would minimise the behavioural effort for consumers. Contiki attempt to coordinate with a wide range of travel agencies who are educated by Contiki sales staff on product attributes (the distribution channel and its implications for pricing with be covered more thoroughly in a later section of this analysis). It should be recognised, however, that many consumers derive utility from extensive cognitive involvement in the purchase process. For example, some customers may enjoy discussing at length with consultants, their itinerary and travel options. To the extent that this occurs, friendly and knowledgeable travel consultants should be an integral part of Contiki’s product offering. In order to achieve this, promotion (i.e. personal selling) to the distribution channel should be emphasised. From this discussion it is evident that the interaction between consultant and customer is a key aspect of the value delivery sequence. Increasing perceived value involves managing the people or participants in the consumption process (Berry, 1980; Booms & Bitner, 1981).

Operating Systems on the Internet Pos/355

Operating Systems on the Internet An online operating system is an operating system that is run online. The online operating system runs on a server that is on the Web. According to the web site, www. thefreedictionary. com (2003) the definition of an operating system is, â€Å"Software designed to control the hardware of a specific data-processing system in order to allow users and application programs to make use of it. † This applies to the online operating system, except that the operating system is available, online. There are many different operating systems n the internet that provide users the ability to access their data from anywhere in the world. An online operating system is also known as a Web operating system or Web OS. It is similar to a regular operating system but it is provided on the internet and allows users to access it from any Web browser. The are many different operating systems available on the internet, here are just a few; ICLOUD, GLIDE OS 3. 0, G. H O. ST, JOLICLOUD, and EYEOS. Many of the Web OS’s mentioned above provide the same type of benefits as an operating system, but it is done on the Web. For instance, the ICLOUD, created by Apple Inc. provides online file system and 50GB of online storage. According to the article written by Macworld Staff (2011), â€Å"In short, iCloud is a catchall phrase that covers Apple’s entire suite of wireless sync and backup services, which aim to keep you device-both iOS, and desktop computers running OS X Lion, Windows Vista, or Windows 7-on the same page, no matter which one you’re using at any given moment. † The iCloud also provides direct access to the user iCloud from Windows Explorer. The Glide OS 3. 0 provides 10GB of online virtual disk space, office tools, Web site creators and file sharing. G. ho. t which stands for Global hosted operating system provides almost the same features as a physical desktop computer, but online. The users can use file storage , sharing, and collaboration. The Jolicloud is used for net books and compatible with Linux, Windows, and AIR. eyeOS is a cloud computing Web desktop that is used by one user or an organization. The account can be created on the eyeOS server and performs as a platform for web application. This is just a small example of the types of WebOS that is available online. Some of these online operating systems can function just like a personal computer operating system.They provide the user the opportunity to store information on an online hard disk, create file management, use of utilities, saving and retrieving documents, and they are accessible where ever a company or individual can access the web. This makes it mobile and a great feature for those that rely on their portable devices, especially phones. On the go operating systems that are accessible on any device that supports Web browsing, what a great idea. Now, individuals can store their documents, pictures, music, and photos online , without having to use any storage space on their individual computers, work computers, laptops, or work computer’s.Individuals and companies can also use their mobile devices and hook them up to printers or other computers. They can also sync their information via Wi-Fi or through Bluetooth, to their computers or portable devices. References Macworld. (2011, June 8). iCloud: what you need to know. Retrieved from http://www. macworld. com/article/1160380/icloud_what_you_need_to_know. html The American Heritage ® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition.. (2003). Operating System. Retrieved from http://www. thefreedictionary. com/operating+system